Solidification and Crystallization Processing in Metals and Alloys

Hasse Fredriksson, KTH, Sweden. Ulla ?kerlind, University of Stockholm, Sweden.

Preface ix 1 Thermodynamic Concepts and Relationships 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Thermodynamic Concepts and Relationships 2 1.3 Thermodynamics of Single-Component Systems 10 1.4 Thermodynamics of Multiple-Component Systems 16 1.5 Thermodynamics of Alloys 21 1.6 Thermodynamics of Ideal Binary Solutions 25 1.7 Thermodynamics of Non-Ideal Binary Solutions 26 1.8 Experimental Determination of Thermodynamic Quantities of Binary Alloys 34 Summary 36 Further Reading 41 2 Thermodynamic Analysis of Solidification Processes in Metals and Alloys 42 2.1 Introduction 42 2.2 Thermodynamics of Pure Metals 43 2.3 Thermodynamics of Binary Alloys 44 2.4 Equilibrium Between Phases in Binary Solutions. Phase Diagrams of Binary Alloys 50 2.5 Driving Force of Solidification in Binary Alloys 76 2.6 Thermodynamics of Ternary Alloys 78 2.7 Thermodynamics of Vacancies in Pure Metals and Alloys 83 Summary 90 Exercises 94 References 98 Further Reading 98 3 Properties of Interfaces 99 3.1 Introduction 99 3.2 Classical Theory of Interface Energy and Surface Tension 100 3.3 Thermodynamics of Interphases 114 3.4 Structures of Interfaces 123 3.5 Equilibrium Shapes of Crystals 145 Summary 155 Exercises 161 References 165 4 Nucleation 166 4.1 Introduction 166 4.2 Homogeneous Nucleation 167 4.3 Heterogeneous Nucleation. Inoculation 179 4.4 Nucleation of Bubbles 190 4.5 Crystal Multiplication 193 Summary 194 Exercises 197 References 200 5 Crystal Growth in Vapours 201 5.1 Introduction 202 5.2 Crystal Morphologies 202 5.3 Chemical Vapour Deposition 203 5.4 Crystal Growth 206 5.5 Normal Crystal Growth of Rough Surfaces in Vapours 210 5.6 Layer Crystal Growth of Smooth Surfaces in Vapours 214 5.7 Influence of Impurities on Crystal Growth in Vapours 238 5.8 Epitaxial Growth 244 5.9 Whisker Growth 249 5.10 Mechanical Restrictions on Thin Films 251 Summary 256 Exercises 263 References 266 6 Crystal Growth in Liquids and Melts 267 6.1 Introduction 268 6.2 Structures of Crystals and Melts 268 6.3 Growth Methods 275 6.4 Crystal Growth 278 6.5 Volume Changes and Relaxation Processes during Anelastic Crystal Growth in Metal Melts 279 6.6 Normal Crystal Growth in Pure Metal Melts 289 6.7 Layer Crystal Growth of Smooth Surfaces in Liquids 297 6.8 Normal Crystal Growth in Binary Alloys 310 6.9 Diffusion-Controlled Growth of Planar Crystals in Binary Alloys 318 6.10 Diffusion-Controlled Growth of Spherical Crystals in Alloys 324 6.11 Impingement 338 6.12 Precipitation of Pores 340 Summary 343 Exercises 355 References 360 7 Heat Transport during Solidification Processes. Thermal Analysis 361 7.1 Introduction 362 7.2 Basic Concepts and Laws of Heat Transport 362 7.3 Convection 366 7.4 Theory of Heat Transport at Unidirectional Solidification 378 7.5 Production of Single Crystals by Unidirectional Solidification 385 7.6 Thermal Analysis 395 7.7 Variable Heat of Fusion of Metals and Alloys 408 7.8 Variable Heat Capacitivity of Metals and Alloys 416 Summary 422 Exercises 429 References 432 8 Crystal Growth Controlled by Heat and Mass Transport 433 8.1 Introduction 433 8.2 Heat and Mass Transports in Alloys during Unidirectional Solidification 434 8.3 Zone Refining 443 8.4 Single Crystal Production by Czochralski Technique 450 8.5 Cellular Growth. Constitutional Undercooling. Interface Stability 454 Summary 465 Exercises 469 References 474 9 Faceted and Dendritic Solidification Structures 475 9.1 Introduction 476 9.2 Formation of Faceted Crystals 476 9.3 Growth of Faceted Crystals in Pure Metal Melts 476 9.4 Growth of Faceted Crystals in Alloy Melts 485 9.5 Growth of Dendrite Crystals 503 9.6 Development of Dendrites 529 9.7 Transitions between Structure Types in Alloys 565 Summary 573 Exercises 580 References 585 10 Eutectic Solidification Structures 587 10.1 Introduction 588